Research related to Southeast Asian immigrant families, as of 1993

University of Minnesota Children Youth and Family Consortium. Permission is granted to create and distribute copies of this document for noncommercial purposes provided that the Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project and CYFC receive acknowledgment and this notice is included.

For more information or for copies of the documents listed below, contact the SARS staff at (612) 625-5535.

Abbay, Krisna. 1992. "Leadership and Management: A Comparative Study of MAAs." RPN: Refugee Participation Network 13(June 1992):9-11. Contact: Refugee Studies Programme, Queen Elizabeth House, 21 St. Giles, Oxford OX1 3LA, United Kingdom.

Abbott, Douglas A., and William H. Meredith. 1985. Minority Families: Strengths of Four Ethnic Groups. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Dallas, 4-8 November 1985. ERIC, ED 268 424. Assesses family strengths, marital and parenting satisfaction for Chicano, Native American, Black and Hmong families.

Amerasian Resettlement Program. 1990. "Amerasian Resettlement: Enhancing the Homecoming." Conference proceedings, March 9-11, 1990. To obtain copies, contact Michael Kocher, Director, Amerasian Resettlement Program, InterAction, 200 Park Ave. S., Suite 1115, New York, NY 10003. Phone: (212) 777-8210. FAX: (212) 995-2942. (51 pp.) Free.

American Banker. 1984. "Twin Cities Credit Union for Hmong May Be Their Solution for Finding Loans: Helps Overcome Language Problems for Members of Indochinese Tribe." American Banker 140(December 17): 24.
First credit union run for and by Hmong, sponsored by Lao Family Community, Inc. of St. Paul. It will provide a safe place for Hmong to put pay and welfare checks and will eventually make small loans.

American Refugee Committee. 1987. Growing Older in America: Issues of Aging in the Southeast Asian Refugee Community. St. Paul: American Refugee Committee. Videocassette. Proceedings of a conference devoted exclusively to issues of older Southeast Asian refugees in Minneapolis/St. Paul area, October 15-16, 1987. Coordinated by the American Refugee Committee through a grant by the McKnight Foundation, the workshop's goal was to increase dialogue between mainstream service providers and refugee service providers through dissemination of knowledge, discussion of accessibility of social services, and exploration of beliefs/behavior which affect service delivery to this population. Presenters included Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese refugees. Sessions were the following: Southeast Asian Elders in Perspective, Learning the Basics: Introductory Information and the Aging Process, Older Refugee Program in Minneapolis/St. Paul, Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Spirituality and Tradition in Life and Death, Cultural Bridges: Volunteer Experiences with Older Refugees, Supporting the Family, Tensions between Generations, Demoralization/Coping Strategies, Continuum of Care: Service Options for the Elderly. This conference illustrates the important role that Minnesota has taken in assisting in the adjustment of the Southeast Asians, especially the older refugee.

Andersen, Karen. l983. "Great Branches--New Roots: Explores Hmong Family Life." St. Paul Park Bugle, March 1983.

Anderson, D. Michael. n.d. "Southeast Asian Refugee Family Stress, Coping and Adaptation." Unpublished paper. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Program in Health Education. (21 pp.)
This paper examines stress-related psychological and social problems encountered by Southeast Asian refugee families and individuals in their attempt to overcome the crisis of forced relocation to a new land. The elderly retain conservative patterns, while children and teenagers, who are more loosely bonded to their traditions and beliefs, assimilate more quickly. The author reviews journal articles which cite sources of stress for adolescents, and identifies unaccompanied minors as the group that has the greatest need for social and psychological support. Support networks for the Hmong, Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Lao in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, are noted. (SARS abstract)

Asian American Press. 1993. "Clinton Pays Tribute to Vietnamese Girl Who Reunited Her Family." Asian American Press 4(47): 5.

Asian American Press. 1993. "Understanding Key to Helping Hmong." Asian American Press. 4(44): 4-5.

Bempechat, Janine, and Herbert Ginsburg. 1989. Underachievement and Educational Disadvantage: The Home and School Experience of At-Risk Youth. ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and Minority Education, Box 40, Teacher's College, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027; phone (212) 678-3433.
An estimated 30 percent of all students in kindergarten through twelfth grade are currently at risk of being educationally disadvantaged. Research conducted over the past 30 years has identified educational, familial, and social factors which influence a child's education. This publication describes and analyses research findings and offers some suggestions on how to address the needs and problems of the growing numbers of at-risk youth. The focus is on poor and minority children.
The authors have divided the information into three distinct sections: 1) demographic factors; 2) problem behaviors; 3) specific educational programs and practices that have proven to be effective in increasing the cognitive development of at-risk youth are presented and analyzed.

Benson, Janet. 1989. "Households, Migration, and Community Context." Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Work, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506. (28 pp.). A paper presented at the 1989 annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association. The author's intent was to determine what influence the political economy of meat packing, the local labor and housing markets, and refugee legal status has had on immigrant adaptation and household structure in a small community.
This paper is the product of fieldwork conducted in southwest Kansas which was supported by the Ford Foundation during 1988-89 as part of a national study of American communities. The project's focus was on the Vietnamese and Laotian refugee households in a small Kansas town dominated by the meatpacking industry.
This project found the secondary migrants to the town to be highly motivated toward production but the primary goal for most of the population studied remained family rather than individual survival. The findings suggest that the extended family and other non-nuclear family households have facilitated Southeast Asian refugee adaptation to the United States. In conclusion, the author argues that it is the combination of cultural values and the insecure nature of refugee employment which has made Southeast Asian households mobile and flexible. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Benson, Janet. "Reinterpreting Gender: Southeast Asian Refugees and American Society." Kansas State University, unpublished ms. (18 pp.)

Bettenga, S. Maus. 1987. "Refugee Family Awaits Reunion." Countryside, September 16, pp. 1, 4.

Bishop, Kent Ausburn. 1985. "The Hmong of Central California: An Investigation and Analysis of the Changing Family Structure during Liminality, Acculturation, and Transition." Ed.D. dissertation. University of San Francisco. Available from University Microfilms International, Customer Service, P.O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, MI 48106; phone 1-800-521-0600, ext. 451. Order No. DA8629401. (223 pp.)
"The study focuses on the changing Hmong family structure and explores the extents of role modification in family relationships, values, and traditions after resettlement in the United States," according to the author's abstract. Biographical surveys were completed by eighteen adults representing three separate Hmong clans. Additional in-depth interviews were done with two key informants. Liminality "is associated with the period when an individual or group moves from one fixed point in the social structure to another," Bishop writes. Significant role modifications were found. "Clan `head men,' `shamans,' and family `heads of households' have suffered the greatest loss of power and self esteem. Women in general, and wives in particular, have gained so much freedom that they often stagger under the weight of their new responsibilities and opportunities," the author writes. One of the subjects, Vang Kua, was a university graduate, the director of information at "Lao Family Organization," and the owner of a market. Another informant, Mai Vang, was a bilingual tutor who, at age 15, married her 30-year-old husband. She describes the mediation problems her family had when her husband's "second wife," after getting pregnant, took her husband to court. While most of Bishop's observations appear accurate, he generalizes to arrive at conclusions that do not always seem to describe the larger Hmong community, perhaps because of overreliance on two Americanized sources. For instance, he concludes that "exogamous marriage (marrying outside the clan) is no longer enforced or seemingly important," and "there is no evidence of the traditional animistic religion." He also contradicts himself, saying at one point that polygamy became more widespread during the war and at another point that it decreased. Bishop's dissertation is available from University Microfilms International, Customer Service, P.O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, MI 48106; phone 1-800-521-0600, ext. 451. Order No. DA8629401.

Bond, Kate. 1990. "Amerasians and AIDS: The Need for Intensive, Targeted Prevention Efforts." Amerasian Update (September 1990): 1-3.

Boter, Babs. 1988. "Midwestern Americans or Southeast Asians?: A Discussion of the Problems of and Programs for Hmong Teenage Girls in the Twin Cities." Unpublished student paper. Minneapolis: American Studies, University of Minnesota. (14 pp. plus appendices)
Programs for teenage Hmong girls at Lao Family Community of Minnesota, Inc., in St. Paul, and the Association for the Advancement of Hmong Women in Minneapolis were studied. The author compares the present-day programs to those offered to second-generation immigrant girls at the International Institutes at the beginning of this century. The program at Lao Family Community focuses "on contemporary and future issues of concern to the girls, such as parent-child conflict, early marriage, pregnancy, and life style and career choices," Boter writes. The program at the Association for the Advancement of Hmong Women provides some opportunities "to discuss social adjustment and family problems, but consists mainly of teaching Hmong and Laotian dances...." Boter notes that the girls in both programs seemed motivated and were unlikely to develop major social problems. Contact the author at 1387 N. Cleveland, St. Paul, MN 55108.

Boyer, Laura M. 1991. The Older Generation of Southeast Asian Refugees: An Annotated Bibliography. Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Occasional Paper Number Eleven. Center for Urban and Regional Affairs (CURA), University of Minnesota. Order from H.D. Smith Bookstore, 259 19th Ave S., Minneapolis, MN 55455, (612) 625-9541. (66 pp. including author and subject indices) $4.00.
Of all the Southeast Asian refugees, it is the elderly who are the most vulnerable and who have the most difficulty adjusting to life in the United States. Traditionally in East Asia, elderly people were revered and cherished by their families and society. Elderly refugees are losing this status and privilege of their age since resettling in the United States. Many are illiterate in their native language and are overwhelmed by the prospect of learning English. "The elders are forced to rely on children/grandchildren for much assistance. Thus, roles are reversed. Intergenerational tensions are exacerbated; and the respected elder role has become one without status....All this contributes to loneliness, homesickness, and depression."
Laura M. Boyer, Reference Coordinator at California State University, Stanislaus, compiled this bibliography for researchers, service providers, volunteers, and anyone interested in understanding the problems and special needs of elderly Southeast Asian refugees.
The 151 citations are organized by refugee group: Cambodian, ethnic Chinese, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese. There is also a section on general works concerning Southeast Asians. The literature reviewed and summarized was published between 1975 and 1990.
"Overcoming these issues/barriers and adjusting to Western culture will be a test of the strength and resiliency of these elders who have sustained losses, endured separations, been stripped of personal belongings, even dignity. As they find themselves strangers in a strange land, they attempt to cope with stressful situations--struggling with a new language, sacrificing to keep family intact as their role diminishes, striving to counteract sadness and isolation. Yet throughout these vicissitudes, they remain skilled in survival."

Brower, Imogene C. 1980. "Counseling Vietnamese." Personnel and Guidance Journal 58(10): 646-52. This general article is written for counselors working with Vietnamese students and their families. It provides specific information to help the counselor establish rapport, avoid misunderstandings, minimize transference dangers, and deal with Vietnamese attitudes toward sex roles and the individual-family relationship. One section of the article discusses explicit and implicit communications, with suggestions for the use of interpreters. [This article was reprinted in ridging Cultures: Southeast Asian Refugees in America, 1983, Los Angeles, Calif.: Special Service for Groups, Asian American Community Mental Health Training Center.] (TAC abstract)

Bruno, Ellen. 1984. Acculturation Difficulties of the Khmer in New York City. The Cambodian Women's Project, The American Friends Service Committee, 15 Rutherford Place, New York, NY 10003. 25 pp.
This report evaluates the problems faced by Cambodians in New York City. In addressing the concerns of youth, the author points out that Khmer children may miss school to accompany their parents as interpreters. Living in a degraded social environment, they adopt the values of the surrounding community without distinguishing between what is good and bad. The author observes a breakdown in sexual mores and a rejection of all that is Khmer. (SARS abstract)

Bui, Diana D. 1991. A Snapshot in Time: Improvements in the Conditions of Refugee Women and Children in Detention in Hong Kong. Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, c/o International Rescue Committee, Inc., 386 Park Ave. S., New York, NY 10016. Phone: (212) 679-0010. FAX: (212) 689-3459. (30 pp.) Free.
In May 1991, Diana Bui revisited Hong Kong to ascertain what changes had been made in the conditions of Hong Kong's detention centers since her earlier visit as part of the Women's Commission delegation in January 1990. This is a follow-up report to the Women's Commission Report on the Conditions of Vietnamese Boat People in Hong Kong_, described in SARS' Fall 1990 Newsletter_. According to Bui:"Conditions in the Detention Centres have improved dramatically since January 1990; in fact many of the Women's Commission recommendations have been carried out. Schools have re-opened....Women's income-generating projects are popping up all over the place. There are now three family planning teams, with a fourth anticipated. Parents can visit children in [the] hospital at least every other day. There are Vietnamese-language newsletters, with information on services and health education, in all four major Detention Centres.... Even these positive changes are now in jeopardy, given the rising influx of Vietnamese Boat People, averaging 165 per day this past May. Hong Kong has reached capacity. Given the Hong Kong Legislative Council's mid-May decision not to fund the opening of additional Detention Centres, programs will be cut back to make space for the new arrivals."

By, Pheng Eng. 1986. "Family Planning: The Perspective of a Cambodian Public Health Nurse." In Years of Horror, Days of Hope: Responding to the Cambodian Refugee Crisis , edited by B. S. Levy and D. C. Susott. New York: Associated Faculty Press, Inc.

Cabezas, Amado Y. 1979. "Asian Child Development Project: A Progress Report. " Paper presented at the National Association of Asian American and Pacific Education Conference, San Francisco, Calif., 25-27 April 1979. (18 pp.) Describes the research being conducted on the influence of the family on child development. The project is concerned with the welfare of Asian and Pacific American families, their family and parental needs, and a general knowledge of child development and child rearing processes in these families. (NIUCSEAS abstract)

Caplan, Nathan, John Whitmore, and Marcella Choy. 1989. The Boat People and Achievement in America: A Study of Family Life, Hard Work, and Cultural Values. The University of Michigan Press, 839 Greene Street, P.O. Box 1104, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1104. Phone: (313) 764-4394 or 764-4392. FAX: (800) 876-1922. (256 pp. including index) $29.95. Two rounds of surveys conducted in Seattle, Orange County, Chicago, Houston, and Boston provide the empirical basis of this study. The authors present five years of research on three ethnic groups, primarily comprised of the second wave of refugees: Vietnamese, Sino-Vietnamese, and Lao. The cultural values, family milieu, and psychological characteristics that contribute to the successes of the Indochinese "boat people" in the U.S. are examined in detail.
The book is divided into five chapters: The Boat People; Profile of the Refugees; Economic and Scholastic Achievement; Cultural Values, Family Life, and Opportunity; and Achievement in America. The appendix contains information on the sites and procedures used in the study. (SARS ABSTRACT) N.B.: The authors use the term "boat people" to refer to refugees from Laos and Cambodia, as well as from Vietnam.

Caplan, Nathan, Marcella H. Choy, and John K. Whitmore. 1992. "Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement." Scientific American 266(February): 36-42.

Capps, Lisa Louise. 1991. Concepts of Health and Illness of the Protestant Hmong. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas. Contact: University Microfilms International, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346. Phone: (800) 521-3042. (276 pp.) For the exclusively Protestant Hmong community in Kansas City, Kansas, perceptions of health and the causes of illness are based on a syncretized set of traditional Hmong and Christian concepts. One Hmong father's deadly cancer, for example, was perceived as being caused by an unconfessed infidelity. "The Hmong did not think that Xang had cancer, but that the illness was kem cev which occurred when he was with his girlfriend. Some community members believed that God left him and the Devil was then able to torture (tsis txog) him. When the Devil does tsis txog then a person will not die quickly, but have a long struggle with illness. It was believed that if Xang had asked forgiveness from God he could be forgiven and still have gone to heaven."
Lisa Capps, who first encountered the Hmong as a nurse practitioner in 1980, based her fieldwork primarily on the Protestant Hmong community in Kansas City. She also spent a month in a Blue/Green Hmong village in northern Thailand collecting background information. Fieldwork methods included a household survey, participant observation, and interviews with community leaders. She provides several examples of illnesses and the way they are perceived and dealt with by the Protestant Hmong.
"Sermons, prayers, and testimonies of faith and conversion deal with life crises of illness and misfortune and in many cases the loss of country and tradition. Sermons given by the Hmong pastor integrate traditional culture in Laos, and at the same time present themes relating to life in the United States, emphasizing elements of American life perceived as a threat to Hmong culture and family life. Sin is behavior that threatens the group and is seen as the cause of illness, misfortune, and in some cases even death. Sin threatens family integrity and destroys families. Doing good works, manifestying proper behavior toward family and others, maintaining a humble attitude, and demonstrating generosity are seen as necessary to receive God's grace and protection from evil.... Improper behavior draws one further from God, allowing the Devil to get closer to the person. When this happens, the person will fall further away, perhaps succumbing to malicious acts and suffering from illness and risking death.

Carlin, Jean E., and Burton Z. Sokoloff. 1985. "Mental Health Treatment Issues for Southeast Asian Refugee Children." In Southeast Asian Mental Health: Treatment, Prevention, Services, Training, and Research , edited by T.C. Owan,. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental Health. This chapter focuses specifically on the Southeast Asian refugee children as a special group. Areas which are discussed are present and future treatment issues, a summary of recent research data, and suggestions regarding psychotherapy and future research. Areas discussed in which treatment issues with refugee children may cause conflict are: language conflicts, cultural differences, career choices, selection of marriage partners, religious differences, lack of understanding of western-type treatment, identity problems, differences in viewpoints over the Vietnam War, and duty to the extended family. Relevant findings of a five-year follow-up study of Vietnamese refugee children are presented; information on children placed in foster homes and adopted children is included. Issues relating to the psychotherapeutic process with non-native English speakers are discussed, along with suggestions for future research with this population. (TAC abstract)

Chan, Kwok B., and Lawrence Lam. 1987. "Community, Kinship and Family in the Chinese Vietnamese Community: Some Enduring Values and Patterns of Interaction." In Uprooting, Loss and Adaptation: The Resettlement of Indochinese Refugees in Canada. , edited by Kwok B. Chan and Doreen Marie Indra. Ottawa, Ont.: Canadian Public Health Association. The dominant ideal structure of the Chinese family in Vietnam was three-generational, but it could be extended to include other close relatives or old friends who had been business partners of the family. The individual drew his identity from the family. Good relations with neighbors were also stressed; under the communist regime, neighbors were an important source of information and news. Parents supervised their children's selection of a mate in order to screen out anyone who might make maintaining family traditions problematic, thus precluding romantic love. Children were physically disciplined, most often by the mother, and parents could disown unruly children through a series of public announcements in the Chinese-language newspapers. Strains in the Chinese family included teenagers' dissatisfaction over their parents' refusal to share family secrets with them, and their criticism of parental control in choice of friends and marital partners. Chinese women seldom worked outside the home and practiced "liberation" through volunteer involvement in community development, the primary goal of which was to enhance their husbands' status in the community. (SARS abstract)

Chaturabhand, Preecha. 1988. People of the Hills. edited by Alan R. Randall & Suk Soongswang. Editions Duang Kamol, G.P.O. Box 427, Bangkok, Thailand. 199 pp. The way of living of the "People of the Hills" is very different from the Western norm. This book examines in non-technical language the sexual, marital, family and economic life of seven of the hill tribes living in the northern Thai hills. The simplicity of their lives is a relief from the social tensions and complexities of urban living. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Chhim, Sun-Him. 1987. " " Introduction to Cambodian Culture. San Diego, Calif.: Multifunctional Resource Center, San Diego State University. (60 pp.)
This book has chapters on Cambodia's physical setting, its historical setting, the Khmer concept of individual worth, the family, language, education, religion, art, literature, important Khmer ceremonies, Khmer holidays and festivals, and recreation and leisure.
The Cambodian family is generally conservative and stable, with the husband in charge of dealing with the outside world, and the wife in charge of dealing with the household. Children trace descent equally through mother's and father's lines. By age 10, girls can perform most household duties, and boys can tend draft animals and perform basic farming techniques. After reaching puberty, a girl observes a one-month period of seclusion. A teenage boy usually serves some time as a novice monk. Sex segregation during adolescence is the rule, and virginity of the bride is highly valued. Young men usually marry between the ages of 19 and 24, and young women between the ages of 16 and 22. In rural areas, the parents tend to choose the spouse, while the young people in urban areas generally make their own choice.
The Cambodian educational system before 1975 included compulsory elementary education. Many students dropped out after grade six and went back to field work. An examination determined which students could go on to secondary education. Teaching methods relied on memorization rather than intelligence and initiative, and there was a shortage of qualified teachers. The entire school system, which was regarded as "Western contamination," was destroyed after the Khmer Rouge took control in April 1975, and those in higher grades were condemned to die. (SARS abstract)

Chin, Shirley Y. 1991. Southeast Asians: A Cross-Cultural Curriculum for Prosecutors and Staff. San Diego District Attorney's Office. Contact: Shirley Y. Chin, 3121 Grim Ave., San Diego, CA 92104. Phone: (619) 531-2772. (125 pp.) $20.00. In order to help bridge the gap of misunderstanding between the Southeast Asian community and the U.S. legal system, Shirley Chin has compiled this handbook for Americans working in the legal system. She provides short overviews of the history, customs, religion, and the family system of the Vietnamese, Lao, Hmong, and Cambodians and includes interviewing tips for each ethnic group. In the section on the Lao, for example, she states, "Do not touch their heads; the Laotians[sic] believe that the soul resides there. In contrast, the feet hold a low status. Thus, it is rude to point or move something with your foot or to put your feet on the table....A Laotian is not lying or dodging the truth if he refuses to look you in the eye. It is a sign of disrespect to make eye contact....Due to Buddhist beliefs of moderation, the Laotians devalue and find distasteful open conflict. The United States legal system is adversarial in nature, which is difficult for Laotians to accept."

Cohn, Mary. 1986. "Hmong Youth and the Hmong Future in America. " In The Hmong in Transition , edited by Glenn L. Hendricks, Bruce T. Downing, and Amos S. Deinard,. Long Island, N.Y.: Center for Migration Studies. 5 pp.
The Hmong in America are a young and rapidly expanding population, with the proportion of relatively younger members of the community growing each year. Dropout rates among adolescents remain high in most areas. Nationwide the dropout rate for Hmong high school girls is at least 50 percent. Teenage marriage poses long-term problems for integration into American life: young men and women with education far below the norm for this society will continue to have difficulties competing for jobs, and large young families without two incomes may continue to live at the margins of poverty. (SARS abstract)

Collins, Thomas J. and Les Suzukamo. 1989. "Dreams in Exile: The Hmong in St. Paul." St. Paul Pioneer Press Dispatch, Sunday, November 26, 1989. edited by Howell, Deborah. St. Paul Pioneer Press Dispatch, St. Paul, Minnesota. These are the first and second special reports devoted to Hmong adaptation to being part of the St. Paul. The first report gives an overview of Hmong adjustment to the community and the second report revolves around life in a Hmong family. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Comerford, Susan, Victoria L. Armour-Hileman, and Sharon R. Waller. 1991 . Defenseless In Detention: Vietnamese Children Living Amidst Increasing Violence in Hong Kong. Refugee Concern Hong Kong, P.O. Box 71510, Kowloon Central Post Office, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (232 pp.) $10.00 plus $8.00 postage and handling.
More than 15,000 Vietnamese children, 7,000 under the age of five, live surrounded by concrete and barbed wire in over-crowded and dangerous detention centers in Hong Kong. June 17, 1992 marks the fourth year of incarceration for many. Alarm at the growing culture of violence in the centers prompted Refugee Concern Hong Kong to assess the psychological and physical impact of Hong Kong's detention policy on Vietnamese children and families. The study, conducted between September 1990 and May 1991, is based on data from in-depth interviews with Vietnamese in detention, child development experts, voluntary agency workers, and program administrators. It reveals that the psychological, emotional, and physical impact of detention on children and families is devastating. Depression, anxiety, lethargy, and hopelessness about the future are pervasive. At critical developmental stages, children lack exposure to anything outside of the detention environment. Values and behavior that underlie the Vietnamese family and community structure erode under the conditions of detention, and basic parental responsibilities may be neglected. As children view the powerlessness of their parents, they begin to model their behavior on that of the guards.
The study includes an historical analysis of the detention policy, a discussion of child development and detention, and an in-depth description of detention center conditions and resulting effects on traditional culture, family structure, education, and physical and mental health.(Abstract was submitted by Sharon R. Waller, Ph.D., who lives in Hong Kong.)

Cooper, Robert G. 1983. "Sexual Inequality among the Hmong." In Highlanders of Thailand. , edited by John McKinnon and Wanat Bhruksasri. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. The relationship between husband and wife in Hmong society has changed from one of cooperative partnership to one approaching an employer-employee relationship. According to the author, there is likely to be a greater degree of equality in the early years of marriage, when the husband is building his family, and when the wife is often pregnant. Differences in labor input tend to increase as the family grows. Cooper discusses bride-price, the fate of girls who get pregnant before marriage, and the emphasis on marrying a youthful bride, who will be able to bear many children. (SARS abstract)

Cooper, Robert, Nicholas Tapp, Gar Yia Lee, and Gretel Schwoerer-Kohl. 1991. The Hmong. Art Asia Press, Ltd. Contact: Suriwong Book Centre, P.O. Box 44, Chiang Mai 50000, Thailand. FAX: 66(53) 27-1902. (90 pp. including index and lexicon of Hmong terms.) $10.70 (takes 8-12 weeks). (We recommend contacting Suriwong Book Centre before sending a check to verify availability.)
This definitive work introduces traditional Hmong village life to westerners, non-Hmong, and to thousands of young Hmong who have grown up in the west without personally experiencing a traditional Hmong way of life. The authors, professional researchers with many years of experience working with Hmong people in Laos and Thailand, have deliberately avoided academic jargon in their text. This extremely useful book unfortunately is plagued with numerous typographical errors. Its availability outside Thailand is limited. We would suggest asking visitors or contacts in Thailand to obtain copies for you in book shops during their stay in Bangkok or Chiang Mai.Fourteen chapters provide insight into Hmong history, the establishment of house and household, lineage and clan, village life, courtship and marriage customs, economy, music codes, crafts, belief in the otherworld and communication with it, propitiating the spirits, shamanism, and death rituals. This work includes fine photographs and illustrations. According to Hmong myth:
"Once upon a time, the Hmong had a very valuable Book which told them many important things that it was necessary to know in life and during the great journey between death and rebirth. That Book was eaten by cows and rats. Since that time, no text has been able to represent a culture as rich in variety as that of the Hmong."
As Cooper points out in his introduction: this text is not, and cannot be, fully representative of the detailed Hmong Way. It does not seek to recreate that magnificent menu lost to the cows and rats, but to provide a taste of Hmong life and a basic knowledge of the structure of Hmong society.

Cox, Carole, and Donald E. Gelfand. 1987. "Familial Assistance, Exchange and Satisfaction Among Hispanic, Portuguese, and Vietnamese Ethnic Elderly." Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 2: 241-255.
This research focuses on intergenerational family relationships among Vietnamese, Hispanics, and Portuguese in Santa Clara Valley, California. Assistance patterns of the elderly with their adult children are examined. Data was gathered by interviewing 100 of each ethnic group, over the age of 60. All three groups of elders do have continuing relationships with their children, but differences exist. For example, the Vietnamese elders provide more advice and household help than the Hispanics or Portuguese but contribute the least financial assistance to their children. The adult Vietnamese children, in return, assist their parents with shopping, cooking, transportation. The Vietnamese elders do play a major role in teaching their native language to the younger generations. Other ethnic comparisons are made among the three groups surveyed.

Dam, Trung Phap. 1987. "Rehabilitating Amerasian Teenagers: A Report from Dallas." The Bridge 4(3): 2,18-19.

Detzner, Daniel F. 1992. "Life Histories: Conflict in Southeast Asian Refugee Families." In Qualitative Methods in Family Research , edited by Jane Gilgun, Kerry Daly, and Gerald Handel. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 85-102. How do refugee elders perceive conflict in Southeast Asian refugee families today? This issue is examined in a study of Cambodian, Hmong, Laotians, and Vietnamese, using life history research methods. Since it is difficult to obtain a random sample, 40 nominated subjects, aged 50 and over, in Minneapolis-St. Paul were interviewed during 1988-1989. Ten members - 5 females, 5 males - from each ethnic group were questioned for six hours each. Emerging from these life histories are two areas of conflict: family roles and gender roles.
Family conflict is determined to be a normative behavior, is usually overtly avoided within and without the family, and is closely related to filial piety. With the younger generation not living up to filial piety beliefs as expected by the elders, a clash between modern and traditional values" is occurring. Even though role loss leads to status loss, the elders are still trying to preserve traditional roles.
Gender conflict is manifested in (1) power/control between males and females, (2) obedience concept of wives and children, and (3) in-law difficulties. The male roles have lessened, but the female roles have increased. Detzner concludes that "it is perhaps through this process of conflict that adaptation and adjustment to dramatic social change is negotiated and mediated." Two case studies are also presented. This research is part of the SAFE Project - Southeast Asian Families with Elders.

Detzner, Daniel F. 1989. "The Roles and Values of Elderly Vietnamese and Cambodian Refugees." Paper presented at the 51st Annual Conference of the National Council on Family Relations, New Orleans, November 3-8, 1989. (37 pp.) Perceptions of refugee elders (aged 50 or older) concerning their roles (family/community) and their values (instrumental/terminal) are examined. Life history interviews were conducted with a nominated sample of twenty Vietnamese and Cambodian elders (aged 51 to 83) in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area. This method provided "elders with opportunities to reminisce, to assume traditional role of teacher, to preserve . . . their historical experience, and to speak in their own voices." Roles performed by these elders fall into four categories: general family, children/grandchildren, parent/grandparent, community. Although elders do continue many important family and community roles, those most cited are not those with high status, e.g., food preparation, child care. Another research finding shows that men do not perform as many roles as women, with Cambodian men having fewer roles than the Vietnamese men. Both Cambodian and Vietnamese women perform the same range of roles. "Apparent that elderly refugee women have more significant functions within the family than men." Thus, it appears that adjustment for women has been easier than for the men. Instrument values--those which promote success in the West--were stressed. Vietnamese elders listed ambition, independence, and intellect while Cambodians mentioned intellect, obedience, and self-control. The terminal values--family security and inner harmony--reflected Eastern orientation/background. Detzner's research emphasizes the importance of understanding the impact on these elders and their families of this conflict between Western values and Eastern orientations. Pertinent literature review also included.

Donnelly, Nancy D. 1988. "Family Issues Arising After Resettlement." Seattle: University of Washington. Paper presented at the Southeast Asian Communities in the United States Conference, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ariz., 5 March 1988. Contact the author at Anthropology Department DH-05, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195. Resettled families bring with them from their homeland cultural models for family relationships that they try to reestablish in the new, alien environment. Some habitual relationships prove functional in the new location. But issues resulting from culture change arise within families, having to do especially with: (1) authority and prestige within the household, and (2) transmitting cultural values to children. Examples given in the paper are of Hmong families in the United States. The author addresses two issues that arise from altered family relationships: who has a right to live within the household and who respects and obeys whom.

Dorais, Louis-Jacques, Kwok B. Chan, and Doreen M. Indra, eds. 1988. Ten Years Later: Indochinese Communities in Canada. Montreal: Canadian Asian Studies Association. (200 pp.) Seven chapters of this book describe eight Indochinese communities, east to west, in large and small Canadian cities: Victoria, Lethbridge, Winnipeg, Toronto, Ottawa-Hull, Montreal, Quebec City, and Moncton. The first chapter, by Norman Buchignani, develops a model of contemporary Indochinese family and community organization.The various authors concentrate on the Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese communities, although a few of them also discuss the much smaller Cambodian and Laotian communities. Suspicions between the North Vietnamese and the South Vietnamese and between the pre-1975 arrivals and the later arrivals are described. Community organizations have splintered over different political and religious beliefs. The Indochinese ethnic communities do not tend to work together; a cross-ethnic recreational program for youth in Manitoba, led by an ethnic Chinese person, was one of the few exceptions.The Vietnamese came with a higher education, on average, than the Sino-Vietnamese, and tended to find better jobs. The Sino-Vietnamese were more likely to live with an intact family, while nearly a fifth of the Vietnamese living in the small prairie city of Lethbridge had someone unrelated to them living with them. In many of the cities, a large portion of the Indochinese adults had no native friends or steady acquaintances. Intergenerational differences in adaptation were found, with the older generation insisting on cultural preservation.The book was published through a grant from Multiculturalism Canada. It is distributed by CASA Secretariat, Universit° de Montr°al, P.O. Box 6128, Station A, Montreal, QC, H3C 3J7; phone (514) 343-7951.

Downing, Bruce T. and Sarah R. Mason. 1982. "A Study of Lao Family Community, Inc. in Minnesota: An Ethnic Self Help Organization." Unpublished, Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project, June 1982.

Education Program Associates, Inc. 1986. "Booklets on Birth Control Methods." Education Programs Asociates, Inc., 1 West Campbell Avenue, Bldg. C, Campbell, CA 95008; phone (408) 374-1210.
This series of eight booklets on birth control methods is targeted at pre- and semi-literate populations. The booklets are based on the "Without Words" concept. They have limited text and extensive illutrations designed to be culturally appropriate. The titles of the booklets are "The Pill," Foam and Condoms," "Diaphragm," "Vasectomy," "Tubal Ligation," "IUD," "Natural Family "Planning," and "A Planned Family Is a Happy Family (Rationale for Family Planning)."

Edwards, Laura E., Carol J. Rautio, and Erick Y. Hakanson. 1987. "Pregnancy in Hmong Refugee Women." Minnesota Medicine 70(11): 633-637.
The course of pregnancy and maternal and fetal outcome in 648 Hmong refugee women was compared with a control population. Hmong women were five times as likely to have a history of previous perinatal loss. The data indicated a higher incidence of giving birth after age 35, grand multiparity [more than seven pregnancies], short stature, and late prenatal care was found in the Hmong sample than in the control group. Medical complications included anemia, tuberculosis, parasitic infestations, and malaria. Preeclampsia, hypertension, diabetes, urinary and vaginal infections, and gonorrhea occurred less frequently. The incidence of premature rupture of the membranes was one third that of the control population. The prematurity rate for Hmong infants was half of the control population, and fewer required NICU care. Contraception was accepted by 50 per cent of the Hmong women, but less than 10 per cent were still using contraception 12 months after delivery. (Publisher abstract).

Egan, Maura Goggin. 1985. "A Family Assessment Challenge: Refugee Youth and Foster Family Adaptation." Topics in Clinical Nursing 7(3): 64-69.
This study identifies adaptation patterns in foster families who took in unaccompanied refugee minors from Vietnam. Most of the 56 refugee youth who were interviewed for the study had come to the United States between the end of 1979 and June 1983. Using the Family APGAR tool (Adaptation, Partnership, Growth, Affection, Resolve), the author found that one-third of the study families had satisfactory outcomes; almost half had minimal adaptation outcomes (at least one family member was dissatisfied with family functioning); and about one-fifth were in the perilous adaptation category (at least one family member was dissatisfied and there was a youth at risk for depression). Proportionally, Vietnamese and American foster families were equally represented in the satisfactory adaptation group, but twice as many American families as Vietnamese foster families were in the perilous adaptation category. The majority of foster families who had never raised teenagers were in the minimal or perilous categories, while parents who were raising a teenager of their own at the time they took in a refugee youth had more positive family adaptation. (SARS abstract)

Epstein, Steven, Rany Duong, and Catherine Wilson. 1985. "An Interview with Refugee Youth." Passage: A Journal of Refugee Education 1(3): 27-32.
Two Khmer, two Hmong, and two Lao refugee teenagers living in California and Illinois were interviewed about their home, school, and social life. The youth talked about pressure from their parents to do well in school. They expressed surprise at the rudeness of American students, concern about racial prejudice, and appreciation of American music and access to video tape recorders. The youth hoped to go to college. (SARS abstract)

Faller, Helen S. 1985. "Perinatal Needs of Immigrant Hmong Women: Surveys of Women and Health Care Providers." Public Health Reports 100(3): 340-343.
This study was an exploratory pilot investigation conducted in the Denver-Boulder area in 1981. Several interpreters interviewed thirty-two Hmong women in a variety of settings using three different interview styles: individual, spousal couple, and a group of women. Women were most responsive in the group setting. Problems in provider use of an interpreter are discussed. In addition to the interviews, a questionnaire was sent to fifty-one health care providers that represented the states with the largest Hmong populations. Those twenty-eight who responded identified family planning and nutrition as the foremost health problems among the Hmong. There were no infant deaths or incidents of maternal hypertension, toxemia or diabetes reported.

Faller, Helen Stewart. 1992. "Hmong Women: Characteristics and Birth Outcomes, 1990. " Birth 19(3):144-148. While it has been common in the last decade for Hmong refugee women to seek health care only late into their pregnancies (if at all) like other immigrant women, the Hmong women's relatively healthy babies and lack of prenatal health risks are unique.
In her recent study of Hmong women in a southeastern rural community in the United States, Helen Stewart Faller concludes: "The women enter the health care system during their second trimester...Although they do not ask for medical guidance for conception or confirmation of preg- nancy, they seem to comply with current U.S. Public Health recommendations. Their self-care practices are effective for healthy pregnancies, and the outcome of their pregnancies is good. They have not experienced symptoms of hypertension, diabetes, or Rh incompatibility. The babies are delivered in the hospital at term, with birthweights comparable with those of other healthy newborns. If their continued resistance to use of oral medications such as vitamins, iron, and contraceptive pills is a true problem, perhaps their actual need for these agents should be investigated. Vitamins and iron are not widely prescribed outside of the United States, and pregnancylike effects of oral contraceptives may indicate the need to consider reduced dosages for Hmong women, who tend to be of smaller stature than many other American women."

Fass, Simon. 1991 . The Hmong in Wisconsin: On the Road to Self-sufficiency. Wisconsin Policy Research Institute Report, 4:2. The Wisconsin Policy Research Institute, 3107 N. Shepard Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53211. Copies may be obtained free of charge when a written request is made. (35 pp.) This study, written by a political economist, looks at the positive economic progress of the Hmong population of Wisconsin, particularly noting the effects of the Key States Initiative (KSI). This federally-funded program supports a set of coordinated actions to increase the self-sufficiency of Hmong and other severely disadvantaged refugees. The author notes, "the essence of the approach is what one could best describe as a family economic development program... which adapt(s) itself to the characteristics of the family." It concentrates on job development and placement for multiple-wage earners, motivating them to take advantage of new opportunities. The cornerstone of the program's motivational component flows from having KSI carried out by mutual assistance associations (MAAs) so that it is a Hmong community effort to help itself.
While the Hmong use of public assistance still remains high in Wisconsin, during the period of the program it was reduced a dramatic 26 percent.

Finck, John. 1981. " " Clan Leadership in the Hmong Community of Providence, Rhode Island. Hmong Research Conference, University of Minnesota.

Finlay, Rosalind and Jill Reynolds. 1987. Social Work and Refugees: A Handbook on Working with People in Exile in the U.K. National Extension College/Refugee Action, 18 Brooklands Avenue, Cambridge, CB2 2HN, U.K. (225 pp.) »19.95. Social Work and Refugees is the result of a three-year project, "Better Social Services for Refugees." The handbook is intended to raise awareness of the needs of asylum seekers and refugees among those working in Social Services. The authors present a detailed and well-organized account of work with refugees in the U.K. The handbook contains seven sections: Introduction; Refugees in the U.K.; Responding to Needs; Dealing with Stress; Working with Families and Individuals; Training; and Resources. Though the focus of the publication is on people involved in social work in the U.K., the information and ideas which are presented are the culmination of input that has been gathered from refugees throughout the world. Social workers will find this handbook to be a fundamental resource. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Fish, Andrew John. 1991. "The Hmong of St. Paul Minnesota: The Effects of Culture, Gender, and Family Networks on Adolescents' Plans for the Future." Unpublished. Masters Thesis. Sociology Department, University of Minnesota. 59 pp.

Fogleman, Billye S., and Vincent Nguyen. 1985. "Coping Strategies of Vietnamese to Changing Gender Roles and Statuses in a Southern U.S.A. Metropolitan Area." Paper presented at the 84th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington, D.C., 7 December 1985. (10 pp.) The authors interviewed 28 adult Vietnamese refugees to elicit coping strategies and sex role changes. They found that the Vietnamese highly value their young people because it is believed their education will gain future financial security and respect for the family. Children are freed from other responsibilities in order to complete their homework every evening and are taught to consider success in school their vocation. (SARS abstract)

Forrest, D.V. 1971. "Vietnamese Maturation: The Lost Land of Bliss. " Psychiatry 34(2): 111-39. Following a psychoanalytical framework, the author describes the maturation of boys and girls in Vietnam. From the early teens, boys are expected to contribute to the family's support and are armed in local defense forces. At age 6 or 7, girls begin to serve as substitute mothers for their younger siblings; in their teens, they do light manual labor or sell wares. During adolescence, there are strong taboos concerning nudity, toilet privacy, and touching the opposite sex. Touching those of the same sex is common, but homosexuality is practically unheard of. Poetry is part of a courtship that is marked by restraint. Boyfriend and girlfriend call each other "little sister" and "older brother." The American involvement in Vietnam and Westernization brought about these changes: (1) Adolescent peer groups were growing stronger. Availability of scooters increased independence from parents, and some delinquent "cowboy" gangs were formed. (2) The time it took to arrange a marriage was reduced from two to three years to one to three months, and fewer marriages were arranged by parents. (3) The miniskirt became popular and female dress less concealing. (4) Oldest sons, who are heirs to family land and occupation, were surpassed by their younger brothers, who pursued upward mobility through education. (SARS abstract)

Frank, Mary, ed. 1990. Newcomers to the United States: Children and Families. Binghamton, N.Y.: The Haworth Press. 89 pp. This book contains information on the social, educational and mental health needs of children and families of immigrants to the United States. Specific areas include current immigration policy, social factors influencing adaptation, the impact of immigration on family stability and educational issues of immigrant children.

Freeman, James M. 1989. Hearts of Sorrow: Vietnamese - American Lives. Stanford: Stanford University Press. (446 pp.)
From 40 Vietnamese men and women who were extensively interviewed by Freeman and his interpreters, fourteen narrators (aged 16 to 80) are included in this book. Sections are basically arranged chronologically with life before, during, and after the Vietnam War detailed, plus life in America. The words/life history of one narrator constitutes each chapter, with Freeman providing an introduction and each narrator usually appearing in several chapters. Of the fourteen narrators, six are elders: (1) South Vietnamese elderly civil servant, (2) elderly South Vietnamese rural woman, (3) North Vietnamese Chinese-Vietnamese elder, (4) North Vietnamese Buddhist nun, (5) Ex-Viet Minh resistance worker, and (6) South Vietnamese school teacher. Section VI is especially pertinent to understanding the emotions, difficulties of these elders as they strive to adjust. Five of the six older refugees provide much insight. The eloquent chapter titles speak for themselves: "I Will Die Lonely and Abandoned," "I Cannot Learn English," "I Want to Live Without Trouble," "My Daughter Neglects Me." Much has been written about the disintegration of the family/family problems arising only since coming to the U.S. Freeman cautions about that assumption since his research indicates that is it likely many of the problems started earlier in Vietnam and worsened after coming to the U.S. He chronicles one family's experience through Narrator I - an elderly South Vietnamese civil servant. These Vietnamese elders, representing various backgrounds, present through their narrations a poignant view of life as it was, life as it is, and the distant dream to return to Vietnam.

Gann, Peter, Luan Nghiem, and Stanley Warner. 1989. "Pregnancy Characteristics and Outcomes of Cambodian Refugees" American Journal of Public Health (9)79: 1251-1257. This study describes the perinatal charasterics of Cambodian refugees in Massachusetts. Data were abstracted from the records of 452 consecutive pregnancies among Cambodian women and 110 low-income Whites receiving obstetrical services at the same clinic and hospital in Lowell, Massachusetts. Pregnancies of Cambodian women were marked by a higher proportion of older mothers, grand multipapras, previous adverse birth outcomes, and short interpregnancy intervals. Maternal anemia (29.9% with hemoglobin <100 g/L) and inadequate utilization of prenatal care (32.3% with first visit in the 3rd trimester) as possible risk factors for the Cambodians. The prevalence of primary cesarean birth was only 6.3 percent in the Cambodians, compared to 15.6% in the comparison group, largely due to the infrequent occurrence of prolongued labor among multiparas. Despite the prominence of several risk factors for adverse birth outcomes in this population, major pregnancy complications were less common and the prevalence of low birth weight identified young maternal age and short stature as the strongest factors operative in the community. Many of the findings are consistent with a strong cultural emphasis on managing the size of the baby to avoid a difficult labor and delivery. [AUTHORS ABSTRACT]

Geddes, William R. 1976. Migrants of the Mountains: The Cultural Ecology of the Blue Miao (Hmong Njua) of Thailand. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Germer, Lucie. 1986. The Food Their Families Eat: Cuisine as Communication among Cambodian Refugees. Ph.D dissertation, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International. (229 pp.) The author uses a linguistic model to analyze the communicative functions of cuisine among Cambodian refugees of Salt Lake City, Utah. New dishes send new messages to family members and to the society from which the dishes are borrowed and adapted. The text includes anecdotes about a young Cambodian man who ate hamburgers to acknowledge that he would not return to Cambodia but stay in the United States and become a U.S. citizen; and another young man who publicly ate pizza in rebellion against the traditional ways of his parents, who wanted him to marry a girl they'd selected. Use of teenage children as translators and varying views of education are discussed. One father encouraged his children to talk about school because he hoped they would become intellectuals; another couple kept their children out of school often because they thought their daughter's worth would be measured by how well she could cook and clean, not by school attendance. Reactions to new American foods are measured. (SARS abstract; Dissertation Abstracts Order No. DA86-22422)

Goldrick, Richard. 1989. Chiang Mai and The Hill Tribes. edited by Wanna Nawigamune. Sangdad Publishing Co., Ltd. 8/50 Lat Phrao 23, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900. Tel. 511-0246, 512-1804. FAX 662-512-1786. 96 pp.
Upriver from Bangkok, across the central plains, is Thailand's northern gateway, Chiang Mai. Recently, it became one of the largest cities in Thailand. This text, accompanied by beautiful photographs, describes the history of the region and the hilltribes who inhabit the area. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Goldstein, Beth L. 1985. Schooling for Cultural Transitions: Hmong Girls and Boys in American High Schools. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Wisconsin--Madison. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International. Dissertation Abstracts, DA 8601538. (313 pp.) This case study evaluates the educational experiences of Hmong students at two different high schools in a moderate-sized midwestern city. One, Logan (pseudonym), served a working class population and had a vocational/technical orientation. The other, Ashmont (pseudonym), served mainly college-bound children of professionals. At Logan, Hmong students were enrolled in English as a second language classes taught by a devoted Hispanic teacher and were mainstreamed in some classes. However, in the mainstream classes, they were grouped with low achievers, and the teachers generally spent more time on discipline than course content. The Hmong were directed into classes where teachers made grade concessions on the bases of effort and cooperation, and so the Hmong were able to attain passing grades without mastering the course material.
At Ashmont, the Hmong were in a separate Limited English Proficiency program and generally had the same teacher year after year. At both schools, the Hmong remained isolated from their American peers, even to the point that they ate their lunch separately in the ESL classroom because they felt uncomfortable in the cafeteria.
Hmong parents put greater pressure on boys than girls to complete their education; girls who dropped out of high school (85 percent from 1980-83) still played a vital role in the Hmong community, that of childbearing and attending to family needs. Hmong students found that high school attendance did not lead to social acceptance, but they believed that it was the key to economic success. Interpreting the aloofness of American students as hostility, they became all-the-more determined to preserve their cultural heritage. (SARS abstract; Dissertation Abstracts Order No. DA86-01538)

Gozdziak, Elzbieta. 1988. Older Refugees in the United States: From Dignity to Despair. Refugee Policy Group, Center for Policy Analysis and Research on Refugee Issues, 1424 16th Street, N.W. Suite 410, Washington, D.C. 20036; phone (202) 387-3015. (56 pp.) $7.50.
This report examines the special problems and needs of the refugee elderly in the United States. Issues discussed include topics involving financial insecurity, English, health, housing, transportation, and intergenerational tensions.
At present, U.S. refugee policies have been largely unresponsive to the needs of this small, but vulnerable, segment of the refugee population. The primary focus of the refugee resettlement program in the United States has been economic self-sufficiency. Therefore, refugee policies and services have been directed to the younger, more employable sector of the refugee population. Older refugees are often considered unemployable and as a consequence they have generally been given low priority for services.
In addition to addressing the needs of the refugee elderly, this report attempts to identify model efforts that are presently being made to resolve the issues which are of concern to this small population. The report is a helpful guide to relating to and working with the refugee elderly.

Grasso, C. M. Barden, C. Henry and M. G. Vieau. 1981. "The Vietnamese American Family and Grandma Makes Three." Maternal Child Nursing 6(3): 177-180.

Greenburg, Lisa Monzel. 1987. "Hmong Family Structure: A Historical and Contemporary Overview." Unpublished student paper. Contact author at 1032 E. Hawthorne Ave., Saint Paul, Minn 55106; Phone (612) 772-1971. Copies available for $6, including postage.
The male-oriented, patrilineal Hmong family and social structure is described in this report. Courtship, marriage, polygamy, and divorce customs are reviewed, with attention given to how these customs may conflict with laws in the United States. Polygamy is placed in context with a review of the literature on the practice of polygamy in other world cultures. "Hmong customs of brideprice, remarriage when the first wife is sterile, and additional marriages for prestigious men are all very much like in Africa. The reluctance of modern educated women in urban Africa to become married to polygamous men seems very much like the trend developing with young U.S. educated [Hmong] women," Greenburg writes. She makes several recommendations for therapists working with Hmong clients.

Hafner, James, Jeannine Muldoon, and Elizabeth Brewer. 1989. Southeast Asian Refugees in Western Massachusetts: Seen But Not Heard. The Asian Studies Program, International Area Studies, 73 Bartlett Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003. (54 pp.) $10.00. Checks should be made payable to The University of Massachusetts/Asian Studies Program. Expect 4-6 weeks for delivery. The Indochinese Needs Assessment Project (IRNAP), developed in 1988 by the Asian Studies Program at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, has released a report on the Southeast Asian refugee population in western Massachusetts. This document contains the summary findings of an eighteen-month study of Southeast Asian resettlement and adjustment in four counties. The specific populations examined in this study included the Khmer, Lao, Hmong, and Vietnamese.
The report presents a demographic profile of the Southeast Asian refugee population, noting the patterns of resettlement, migration and distribution of the refugee population, 1975-1988. A needs assessment of this population was conducted, providing an evaluation of the social, educational, economic, and health conditions. The intent of this project was to provide existing and developing service programs with current information on the needs and health status of the Southeast Asian refugee population living in western Massachusetts. Recognition of the heterogeneity and dissimilarities among the refugee groups included in this study can serve as a useful tool in future planning and policymaking. (SARS abstract)

Haines, David W. 1982. "Southeast Asian Refugees in the United States: The Interaction of Kinship and Public Policy." Anthropological Quarterly 55(July): 3.

Haines, David W., Dorothy Rutherford, and Patrick Thomas. 1981. "Family and Community among Vietnamese Refugees." International Migration Review 15(1-2): 310-19. edited by Stein, Barry N. and Sylvano M. Tomasi. Center for Migration Studies, 209 Flagg Place, Staten Island, New York 10304. (212) 351-8800.
This article focuses on the maintenance, extent, and structure of family and community ties among Vietnamese refugees in the United States. The findings from a series of field efforts in northern Virginia indicate the continuing and pervasive importance of both family and community. The family, in particular, extends well beyond the boundaries of the household, and is capable of furnishing significant amounts of emotional and practical support. Primary family relationships appeared to be with parents, siblings, and children. Children worked in the family businesses after school and on weekends and were taught by their parents not to be too individualistic. (Author/SARS abstract)

Haley, Nancy. 1983. Great Branches, New Roots: The Hmong Family. An Enrichment Guide. Hmong Film Project, 2258 Commonwealth Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108. 20 pp. A guide to accompany the film of the same title. The film includes a series of interviews conducted in 1982-1983 with Hmong residents of St. Paul.

Hall, Sandra E. 1990. "Hmong Kinship Roles: Insiders and Outsiders." Hmong Forum 1: 25-39. Originally a student paper.
Hall, a St. Paul high school teacher, writes of changes in the Hmong family system since U.S. resettlement. "The Hmong began to express concern to American friends that a system which had resolved a family's practical and personal problems for centuries was not functioning as it had in the past. Hmong students increasingly brought problems to teachers and counselors, confiding in them what would previously have been confided to family members," Hall writes. The Hmong family system has a structure of "insiders" and "outsiders". The most "inside" group is the household, then all the descendants of a common ancestor, then unrelated clan brothers and sisters, then one's mother's clan. "Mutual Assistance Associations such as Lao Family Community are seen as closer to the `outsider' pole of the continuum because of their interclanal nature," Hall writes. American social agencies and sponsors are seen as even further outside.
Hall describes the traditional sequence of how marital problems are resolved between the two clans. She surveyed thirty-four Hmong high school students to see who they would go to for help if they had marital problems. A substantial number of males and a majority of females said they would go to the wife's family members first, even though tradition would demand they go to the husband's family first. Hall presents three case studies in which Hmong young people went to "outsiders" for help with problems, bypassing insiders.

Halpern, Joel M. 1978 . "Review of Migrants of the Mountains by W. R. Geddes." American Anthropologist 80: 448-449.

Hamline University. Selected Readings in Hmong Culture and Language. Course materials for Anthropology 622, "Introduction to Hmong Culture and Language." Center for Refugee Ethnography, Hamline University, 1536 Hewitt Ave., St. Paul, MN 55104. Phone: (612) 641-2900. (411 pp.)

Hamline University. Multidisciplinary Project on Gerontology. 1980. "Databook on Asian-American Elderly in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Area." St. Paul: Hamline University. (117 pp.)
Results of a needs assessment survey begun in 1978 by the Multidisciplinary Project of Gerontology at Hamline University. Funded by the Administration on Aging. Asian-American groups included Cambodians, Laotians/Hmong, Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, and Filipinos over the age of 60. Surveys and personal interviews used. Information organized in over 200 tables by ethnic groups. Data collected in these categories: (1) general demographics, (2) financial, (3) living conditions, (4) family concerns, (5) health concerns, (6) nutrition/eating habits, (7) problems of refugees, (8) division of labor in home, (9) socio-cultural concerns, (10) assistance received, (11) help given, (12) opinions of social services, and (13) political concerns. Very extensive information has been tabulated.

Hammond, Ruth. 1993. "Clan Secrets." Twin Cities Reader, January 13-19, pp. 4-7.

Hammond, Ruth. 1989. "Rumors of War: Vang Pao." Twin Cities Reader, Oct. 25-31: 8-14; November 8-14: 8-14. 8 pp. The Rumors of War Part I and II. Part I is about the "Promises of a triumphant return to Laos keep Minnesota's Hmong refugees donating money to their resistance forces, dreaming of home, and quarreling about the motives of a legendary leader named Vang Pao." In Part II, the author examines Lao Family Community's possible association with Vang Pao's resistance movement.

Hayes, Christopher L. 1987. "Two Worlds in Conflict: The Elder Hmong in the United States." In Ethnic Dimensions of Aging. , edited by edited by Donald E. Gelfand. New York: Springer.
How are older Hmong refugees adapting to life in the U.S.? Nineteen elders (aged 40-78) were interviewed in greater Los Angeles area. Interviews focused on (1) life in U.S., (2) Hmong view of old age, (3) role of elderly in family structure, (4) intergenerational tensions, (5) relationship of elders to service providers, (6) assimilation/acculturation efforts. These elders have experienced a multitude of losses--loss of material possessions, loss of mobility, loss of religious and other customs, loss of status. This loss of status is very difficult for these aged Hmong. Some expressed fear of being placed in nursing homes. Many exhibit depression symptoms but do not seek services of mental health professionals. All those interviewed wanted to return to Laos although they realized it is not practical. Do not understand social service agencies. Hayes not too optimistic on "ability of the older Hmong to assimilate into American culture."

Hayes, Christopher L. 1984. A Study of the Older Hmong Refugees in the United States. Ph.D. dissertation. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Fielding Institute. (192 pp.) Available from University Microfilms International, P.O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, MI 48106. $22.50 plus $2.25 shipping and handling. Dissertation Abstracts, DA 8516389.
For his study, Hayes interviews 19 elderly Hmong refugees in Los Angeles and Orange Counties, Cailfornia. "The findings of the study indicate that the older Hmong have experienced immense social and psychological upheaval, which has left them physically and financially dependent upon their children, physically and psychologically isolated, lacking self-esteem, and with few of the skills necessary for adapting to mainstream scoiety. It was further discovered that existing social service providers have little interest in or understanding of the cultural traditions and current plight of this population, and it was concluded that the most useful and acceptable forms of assistance come from within the Hmong community itself," Hayes summarizes. Hayes also found that the elderly Hmong suffered from loss of mobility, fear of crime, grief over loss of relatives and traditions, and inter-generational conflict.

Henkin, Nancy, Gail Weinstein-Shr, and Elzbieta Gozdziak. 1988. "New Branches . . . Distant Roots: A National Symposium on Older Refugees in America: Summary Report." Philadelphia: Temple University. (15 pp.)
Summary report of a conference, sponsored by Temple University and Refugee Policy Group held in Washington, D. C., June 1988. Older refugees not a high priority for services by agencies even though they face a proliferation of problems--isolation, loneliness, depression, lack of English skills, emotional problems. Many of these problems discussed in the following workshops: (1) language and literacy; (2) family, social supports and intergenerational relationships; (3) health/mental health; (4) employment/financial security. Southeast Asian refugees are prominent among those older refugees cited as examples. Also cited are outstanding programs for the elderly: Respected Elders Program, Women's Association of Hmong and Lao, Project LEIF (Learning English through Intergenerational Friendship). As the "graying" of the refugee population continues, recommendations to assist these elders are given in the form of answers to questions at the report's conclusion. Good overview of plight of refugee elders. Consult Older Refugees in the United States: From Dignity to Despair (116) for complete report.

Henry, Rebecca. 1991 . Measles, Hmong and Migration: Culture Change and Illness Management under Conditions of Immigration. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. For copies, contact the author at 5120 41st Ave. S., Minneapolis, MN 55417. (69 pp.) $10.00. In the spring of 1990, three Hmong children died and fifty-three were hospitalized during a measles epidemic in St. Paul, Minnesota. During the following summer and fall, Rebecca Henry interviewed nineteen Hmong families and three traditional healers to understand the practices they used in caring for their children during the epidemic.
"In this paper I hope to make Hmong parents' seemingly inexplicable practices in an epidemic crisis sensible to a western audience. One of my tactics is to place these apparently impractical responses in a framework informed by the literature on Hmong animism, and interpret parents' strategies and explanations as part of an Asian metaphorical logic that has little in common with the thinking of North American health officials."
Henry focuses on the Hmong perceptions and beliefs concerning measles and their use of agricultural terms, perceptions of time, and cosmological concepts in understanding and explaining illness. "Collectively, Hmong parents' practices in caring for their children during the measles epidemic made use of the full range of treatment options available in the city of St. Paul, both Hmong and Western. To imply that parents stubbornly limited themselves to `traditional' means of caring for their children would make Hmong immigrants appear dupes of their own `culture' which is certainly not the case....I have attempted to view their traditional practices through a closer attention to their animist cosmological understanding in order to gain a perspective on the issues of cultural change in which these parents are caught up."

Hirayama, Kasumi K. and Hisashi Hirayama. 1988. "Stress, Social Supports, and Adaptational Patterns in Hmong Refugee Families. " Amerasia Journal 14(1): 93-108. edited by Leong, Russell C. Asian American Studies Center, 3232 Campbell Hall, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024. This study is a result of a survey conducted in 1983-1984 which consisted of twenty-five Hmong male family-heads who had lived in the United States for two years or more and were residing in Memphis, Tennessee. The purpose was to examine the relationship that exists between stress and social support systems of Hmong refugees and to determine how these systems are related to family adaptational patterns. This study found the Hmong to be a highly organized and unified community. The authors suggest that other than the stressors in areas such as health and employment, the Hmong should be left to themselves for resolution, unless a specific request for assistance is made by a family or an individual. The Hmong are recognized as a very independent people who have a highly organized system of mutual assistance. The authors recommend that social service providers should encourage the Hmong to strengthen this existing network while also acting as a supplement to this network by acquainting the Hmong with the scope of external resources available in the larger society. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Hmong Film Project. 1983. Great Branches, New Roots: The Hmong Family. 42 min., color, 16mm. Rental: University Film & Video, University of Minnesota, 1313 Fifth Street SE, Suite 109, Minneapolis, MN 55414. Local (612) 627-4270. Minnesota Toll Free 1-800-542-0013. Out of State Toll Free 1-800-847-8251.
Film illustrates concept of Hmong family structure and its role in survival in an American city. Film begins with animated Hmong creation story.

Holloway, Ailsa J. 1981. "Identification of Health-Related Helping Relationships Among Southeast Asian Refugee Families." M.A. thesis, School of Nursing, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. (109 pp.)
This thesis supported the hypothesis that refugees from Southeast Asia depend essentially on their primary group and immediate social network for health-related help and support. Data were gathered from a convenience sample of twenty-two households in a low-income housing project in Seattle; ethnic groups included Hmong, Khmer, Lao and Vietnamese. Data were gathered by the investigator through ethnographic observation and questionnaire; interviews were audio tape-recorded. The findings stressed the functional importance of lay health consultants within the study households. The discussion includes description of the informal social networks (within families and between friends), and patterns of help-giving and help-seeking in general, and for the care of persons who are ill.

Hoshino, George. 1990. Refugee Mental Health: "Off-the-Hip" Think Pieces. School of Social Work and Refugee Assistance Program, Mental Health Technical Assistance Center, University of Minnesota. Available through SARS. (113 pp.) $11.30. These "think pieces" were originally individual essays written for Technical Assistance Center staff at the University of Minnesota to stimulate ideas and discussion on refugee mental health issues. These innovative pieces include such topics as the therapeutic vs. policy view of refugee mental health, the use of bilingual paraprofessionals and bicultural interpreters, a conference paper on refugee mental health planning, family planning and refugee mental health, models and model-building in refugee mental health, and institutional racism.

Hughes, Mary K. 1990. Hmong Concepts of Parenthood and Family in the United States. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University. Copies may be obtained for $10.00 by writing to Mary K. Hughes, West 1603 Main Ave., Spokane, WA 99201. Phone: (509) 533-3745. (108 pp.)
One of the many problems faced by Hmong parents adapting to a American society is confronting service organizations and individuals who assume that Hmong parenting should be the same as middle-class Anglo-Americans in the United States. Instead of having their needs respected and receiving support in being a parent, they may often be "pressured" into changing their parenting behavior to conform with norms accepted in American society. Studies of Hmong resettlement problems usually do not examine parenting and other issues from Hmong parents' perspectives and researchers have not gone to them directly to find out how they feel. Mary K. Hughes developed this study of the Hmong concept of parenthood in Spokane, Washington, by interviewing Hmong parents directly using surveys written in Hmong and speaking to them in their own language.
Hughes includes in her work an overview of parenting concepts gleaned from different types of studies and details her research techniques which combined traditional anthropological methods of data collection with the survey method. While there are differences in perspective between the older group of Hmong parents who were not fluent in English and had received little education and the younger group who were more educated and fluent in English, both groups shared two major concerns: 1) having enough money for their family's needs (what Hughes calls "money-gathering") and 2) that their children have too much freedom growing up in the United States. Her research work is complemented with direct quotes from Hmong parents expressing their concerns and frustrations of living in a society and economy radically different from their homeland in Laos.
"Too often, members of the dominant Anglo-American culture plan programs intended to assist or `reform' the Hmong without understanding who the Hmong are and without obtaining input from the Hmong who will be affected by the programs....Rather than using this information to determine how to better adapt Hmong parents' values to those of Anglo-American parents, and expecting Hmong parents to give up their cultural values, I would hope that Anglo-Americans would respect their differences and even learn from them."

Huynh, Dinh Te. 1987. Introduction to Vietnamese Culture. San Diego, Calif.: Multifunctional Resource Center, San Diego State University. (80 pp.)
This guide has chapters on Vietnamese culture, the individual, family relationships, community relationships, language and nonverbal communication, political and economic dimensions, nature, values, education, religion, philosophy, and arts.
In the eyes of her children, the Vietnamese mother has the same status as the father. Parents teach their children according to the principles of filial piety and social courtesy. Younger siblings must respect and obey the older siblings.
The Vietnamese educational system is based on the French model, with its concern for the full development of the individual, although the language of instruction changed from French to Vietnamese after French colonial rule ended in 1945. In the North, education was patterned after the Marxist model of political indoctrination. In the South, secondary school students could choose among four tracks: experimental science, mathematics, modern languages, and classical languages. In 1975, there were four state universities, ten private colleges and universities, and a number of institutes, national schools, and normal schools. (SARS abstract)

Indochina Refugee Action Center. n.d. "Agricultural Project: Lao Family Community, Inc. and Catholic Charities." In Survey of Self-Help Initiatives. , This is a portion of a document prepared by the Indochina Refugee Action Center, Refugee Community Development Project.
This entry summarizes the purpose, activites, client information, and history of the Agricultural Project located in Fresno, California.

Insight on the News. 1989. "A [Hmong] Clan Against All Odds."

Insight on the News (16 January) : 16-17.

International Catholic Child Bureau. 1990. "Pilot Parent Support Groups for Indochinese Refugees--The International Catholic Child Bureau, N.Y." Unpublished. Contact: The International Catholic Child Bureau, ICO Center, 323 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017. 9 pp.

Irvine, Martha. 1991. "Choua Lee's Success Highlights Hmong Women's Changing Roles." Minnesota Women's Press, 7(17): 1, 6.

Jamieson, Neil L., Nguyen Manh Hung, and A. Terry Rambo, eds. 1992. The Challenges of Vietnam's Reconstruction. Indochina Institute Papers, a joint publication of George Mason University with the East-West Center, Indochina Initiative, Honolulu, Hawaii.
In May of 1992, scholars and officials from Vietnam joined American researchers and professionals at George Mason University to examine critical issues concerning Vietnam's reconstruction.
The eleven conference papers presented in this volume are organized into three sections: "Political and Economic Factors and Prospects" which includes such issues as economic reform, Vietnam's relations with other Asia-Pacific countries, and the role of the private sector in Vietnam's development; "Population and Human Resources"; and "Environment and Natural Resources" which covers such topics as Vietnam's oil and gas future and the role of forestry in Vietnam's development.
"The assessment that we have just presented of Vietnam's development is not an optimistic one....we perceive many of the negative factors--rapid population growth, limited resources, environmental degradation, cultural, institutional, and ideological rigidities--as interacting in ways that produce negative synergy. Problems seem to feed on each other so that even what would seem to be positive steps in other contexts contribute to deterioration in the overall situation."
"It is not our intent, however, to portray Vietnam's situation as hopeless....If there is any chance for Vietnam to raise living standards to the level of its more prosperous neighbors, economic reform must be accom- panied by a creative process of political reform. Some process of change is needed that will encourage and provide for meaningful participation in the reconstruction of Vietnam by a wide range of Vietnamese intellectuals and technocrats, foreigners, and expatriate Vietnamese."

Kelley, Ninette. 1988. Working With Refugee Women: A Practical Guide. International NGO Working Group on Refugee Women, C/O World Council of Churches, Refugee Service, 150 Route de Ferney, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. (174 pp.) In November 1988, the International Consultation on Refugee Women was held in Geneva and attended by representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and United Nations agencies. The guide is a result of the presentations and recommendations that were made at this conference. Five specific topic areas are examined: protection, health, employment/development, education, and cultural adjustment. Also included are specific recommendations regarding NGOs, refugee women's groups, United Nations programs and governments working with refugees. The purpose of the guide is to increase awareness of the various issues and situations that confront refugee women. (SARS ABSTRACT)

Kiang, Peter Nien-chu. 1991. "New Roots and Voices: The Education of Southeast Asian Students at an Urban Public University." Ph.D. dissertation, Graduate College of Education, Harvard University. Contact: University Microfilms International, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346. Phone: (800) 521-3042. (354 pp.)
The challenges of college for a non-native speaker of English, compounded by feelings of cultural and social isolation, has caused some Southeast Asian students to be depressed, if not suicidal. This does not jibe with the "super-achieving whiz-kids" stereotype many Americans have of Asian students.
Peter Nien-chu Kiang became concerned about the college experience of Southeast Asian students when he began teaching at the University of Massachusetts/Boston in 1987. Kiang utilized six sources of qualitative data and three approaches to data analysis to find out how the Southeast Asian refugee students defined and dealt with such difficulties as cultural and linguistic barriers, racism, family problems, and feelings of social and academic isolation. As part of his research, he conducted a qualitative pilot study at the University to find out what graduating Southeast Asian refugee students believed their purpose was in going to college, how they changed during their college years, and what they expected for their future after graduation. Kiang asserts that the numerous problems students face can be analyzed as part of four distinct dimensions of each student's identity--as a Southeast Asian, as a refugee, as an immigrant, and as a racial minority.
"Individual coping strategies identified in this research, such as choosing majors in technical fields and not speaking up in class, though allowing for short-term and limited success in school, may actually compound their problems over the long-term and reinforce patterns of isolation that characterize Southeast Asian students' experience in both academic and social domains of college."
Kiang complements his research with insightful and revealing stories about his students: "She began her final project presentation with a poem written by another student who was too shy to recite it himself: 'I have seen starvation at sea,I have seen a man put his life at the bow, soHis children could know what Freedom means.I have seen pirates rape a young girl, then throw her overboard;The sea turned red and my anger raged...'
The room was still as she started to weep, unable to read any further. Her friend and project partner... reached out her hand in understanding.The poet didn't know that his words revealed the story of her own sister. Her classmates didn't know her story either, but could see her sorrow as the sea turned red. We sat quietly, feeling the moment another lesson in struggle and survival."

Killeen, David. 1981. "Traditional Hmong Child: A Concept in Transition." Unpublished student paper. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. (17 pp.)
This paper examines the traditional Hmong concept of the child within the ecological, cultural and familial contexts of the Hmong people. Children and the wife or wives are of great economic importance to the Hmong. Children start working at age four, with older siblings caring for the younger ones. Children are encouraged to be active, and boys are entrusted with a large knife and a tobacco pipe at an early age. The culture is one of strong family and village loyalty, with little loyalty to nations or governments, the author states. (SARS abstract)

King County Rape Relief. 1988. Helping Your Child Be Safe [parent video]. Be Aware. Be Safe [teen video]. Be Aware. Be Safe. A Presenter's Guide. King County Rape Relief, Box 300, Renton, Washington 98057. Twenty minutes each, color, VHS video. $100 each. A 21-page presenter's guide is included with the purchase of each video.
Two training videos for Southeast Asian parents and teens presenting sexual assault prevention information. The videotapes contain believable stories of sexual assault situations specifically designed to be appropriate and informative to a Southeast Asian audience.
Each 20-minute tape features the same three scenarios but with different beginning and ending segments; one suitable for discussions with parents and the other with teenagers. They illustrate possible situations in which sexual assault can happen as well as ways to avoid or cope with it if it occurs.
The realistic stories feature Asian-American actors in typical Asian-American settings. The videos are in English but the accompanying discussion guides are usefully written in Chinese, Vietnamese, Cambodian and Lao. The presenter's guide points out important issues of Asian attitudes towards family and sexuality which must be considered in any discussion of sexual assault within the context of living in America. The guides include definitions in the four languages of the important terms used in the videos.

Kirton, Elizabeth Stewart. 1987. "Dialogue between School and Home: Communication or Miscommunication?" Unpublished paper presented at the California State Department Conference "Special Education for a Changing Population". Social Process Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara. Available from Elizabeth Stewart Kirton, Social Process Research Institute, Dept. of Sociology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106. (12 pp.)

Kubota, Jan and Kara J. Matsuda. 1982. "Family Planning Services for Southeast Asian Refugees." Family and Community Health 5(1): 19-28.

Kulig, Judith C. 1988. "Childbearing Cambodian Refugee Women." The Canadian Nurse 84(6): 46-47. (2 pp.) Thirty women and a Cambodian healer were interviewed to identify cultural knowledge of conception