Parenting, Social Class and the Achievement Gap
by Rebecca Jacobsen and Tamara Wilder
PhD Candidates in Politics and Education, Teachers College,
Columbia University
Policy conversations regarding the achievement gap often focus solely
on the role of the school. However, researchers have found that the
gap actually appears before children begin school. Different
social classes have, on average, different parental practices that
impact children’s readiness for academic success. Understanding
the ways in which these differences affect academic success will help
policy makers and practitioners develop programs that narrow the gap
before children even enter school.
Before outlining the various social class differences in parental
practices and activities that support academic success, it should be
noted that we are speaking about average characteristics. For example,
researchers have found that on average, mothers who were on welfare
spoke 600 words per hour to their infants while professional parents
spoke over 2,000 words per hour. They estimated that by age 4, children
of professional parents heard 45 million words while children of mothers
who were on welfare only heard 13 million words creating a 30 million
word gap. However, this is not
to say that all professional parents speak 2,000 words per hour to
their children; of course, some speak less. Furthermore, there are
some mothers who are on welfare who speak far more than 600 words an
hour to their infants. But, on average, these social class differences
contribute to lower class children entering school with smaller vocabularies.
Social class also impacts pre-reading activities that take place in
the home. While parents of all classes read to their children, how
they read a story can vary. Lower class parents often ask more factual
questions while reading a story. (What color is the girl’s dress?
Where is the dog?) Upper class parents tend to ask more complex questions
that require children to use critical thinking skills. (What do you
think will happen next? How is this trip to the zoo similar to your
trip?) These different approaches
to reading impact a child’s reading ability upon entering school.
Upper and middle class children who have become accustomed to interacting
with text on a more complex level will, on average, show greater progress
on standardized tests.
Approaches to encouraging or reprimanding children’s behavior
also affect academic achievement. Toddlers of professionals receive
an average of six encouragements per reprimand while toddlers of parents
on welfare receive two reprimands per encouragement—a reversal
of the ratio. Children receiving
more encouragement from an early age will build self confidence and
willingness to try new activities, both of which lead to greater success
in the classroom.
Disciplinary differences between social classes, often as a result
of the types of daily experiences had by parents at work, also impact
learning. Parents with professional occupations who are expected to
ask questions and solve problems at work will naturally bring these
traits home. Upper and middle class parents are more likely to negotiate
disciplinary issues like bedtime or dinner choices and are more likely
to explain why particular rules are being implemented. Working class
parents, whose work is often more routine and authoritative, tend to
instruct children without extended explanations. When
upper and middle class children arrive at school, their experiences,
on average, make them more comfortable asking the teacher questions
and clarifying rules.
These differences in how one views authority also impact parent-teacher
relationships. In an extensive study of home-school relationships,
Annette Lareau found that working class parents believed teachers had
specialized knowledge and thus, did not feel it was their place to
intervene or supplement with lessons at home. In stark contrast, upper
class parents interviewed believed they were partners with teachers
and often guided and supervised their child’s educational experiences
through supplemental lessons at home or though negotiations for special
provisions at school.
The cumulative effect of these various social class differences in
parenting style is that upper and middle class children arrive at school
with experiences and abilities that give them an educational advantage.
Because many of these gaps begin to appear long before children arrive
at school, programs to close them must begin early in a child’s
life. One successful program for teenage mothers was a home visiting
nurse. They not only provided well baby care but also parenting tips
and techniques. In one study where teen mothers received such home
visits from pregnancy through age 2, follow ups showed that their children
developed fewer behavior problems at school and had higher test scores.
Early childhood care and education programs can also help low income
children acquire social and academic skills prior to entering school.
Such programs are most effective if they begin when the children are
toddlers and are staffed by instructors with a degree in early childhood
education.
Home-school connections can be emphasized in early childhood programs
and elementary school through the creation of a home-school teacher
position. Ideally, the home-school teacher visits to help parents in
their homes to support classroom instruction, and offer workshops on
academic activities and disciplinary practices that facilitate learning.
To supplement more formalized parent-teacher conferences, the home-school
teacher can act as a liaison throughout the school year to explain
school materials such as test results and pedagogical practices to
parents.
Schools can also encourage active parents to become parent mentors.
Parents themselves are invaluable resources to one another. Many lower
class parents are isolated from one another, lacking information about
after school programs, specific teachers, and in-school services that
most middle and upper class parents receive through informal parent
networks. Because lower income parents may perceive teachers to be
experts, parent mentors are particularly important to bridge this gap.
Without efforts focused on child-rearing practices and home-school
connections, the achievement gap will persist despite even the most
extensive school reforms. There are many causes of the achievement
gap. Enabling all parents to provide their children with the home environment
and skills proven to be influential for academic achievement may go
further in narrowing the achievement gap than school-based reform alone.
Editor’s Note:
This article, Parenting, Social Class and the Achievement Gap,
was commissioned by CYFC based on the book Class and Schools:
Using Social, Economic and Educational Reform to Close the Black-White
Achievement Gap by Richard Rothstein. CYFC staff read the
book in preparation for our work on Educational Disparities. Rothstein’s
approach is that the achievement gap requires solutions from many sectors
of the community, as per the Circle of Influence Framework, rather
than just schools alone. Rothstein is a research Associate with the
Economic Policy Institute, and a lecturer at Teacher’s College,
Columbia University. The authors, Rebecca Jacobsen and Tamara
Wilder, describe themselves as junior colleagues of Richard Rothstein. Both
are PhD Candidates in Politics and Education, Teachers College, Columbia
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Rothstein, Richard. 2004. Class
and Schools: Using Social, Economic and Educational Reform to Close
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Lareau, Anette. 2000. Home
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Olds, David, et al. 1997. “Long-Term
Effects of Home Visitation on Maternal Life Course and Child Abuse
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Additional Resources
Teachers College - Columbia
University
A Conversation With Richard Rothstein
Reforms That Could Help Narrow the Achievement Gap
